Lesson Planning in teaching English - skills and activities Essay

Lesson Planning in teaching English - skills and activities - Essay Example This essay analyzes that It is against this background that this discussion seeks to develop a detailed lesson plan for teaching English listening and speaking skills to ESL Adult learners, with a view to justifying the necessity of all aspects of the lesson planning on the achievement of English communication skills objective, for ESL adult learners. The rationale/justification for the application of the methods of teaching above is the combination of both the requirements of both the Natural and the Communicative approaches to teaching language, which offers that the application of more communicative and less grammatical and structural instructions, coupled with the application of real-life activities can help ESL learners to understand a language better (Brown, 2000:27). The football and grocery shopping are real-life activities through which the adult ESL can be able to learn English language application, through practicing speaking (Larsen-Freeman, 1986:56). On the other hand, t he listening of the song and the story being read out loud are activities that can enhance the listening skills of the adult ESL learners, while also enabling them to contextualize the wording and phrases from the listening section into the speaking contexts (Stevick, 1980:112). Thus, the application of the method sought to foster both the listening and speaking skills of the adult ESL learners in practical and real-life ways, which do not entail applying strict grammar rules and structural correction of the student errors.

Categorical imperative Essay Example for Free

Categorical imperative Essay The Golden Rule- Do unto other as you would have them do unto you. Yes, corny as hell, but it works. If you make a decision and think of yourself as suffering the potential outcome; it will often help to make a wiser and more considerate and ethical decision. EXAMPLE: if you are using a pirated software then think being in shoes of a person who has developed that software. All of his hard work is going in vein and he is getting nothing from you. 2. Immanuel Kant’s Categorical Imperative- Yes, take a note from a philosopher. If a action is not right for everyone, then it is not right for anyone. A bit idealistic and unrealistic for most scenarios; but hey, it might keep you from EXAMPLE: While using pirated software if you think that it doesn’t make any difference to developer’s income but, you think that if everyone started using pirated software then developer will get nothing from his software and then no one will develop any software because there is no income from that, which ultimately hurts the world as a whole†¦ 3. Descartes’ Rule of Change- Principle that states that is an action cannot be taken repeatedly, then it is not right to be taken at any time. Yes, another philosopher, how grand life is. Of course this should not surprise us considering that morality is one of the major areas of study of philosophy. EXAMPLE: if you are downloading songs from unauthorized sites for free and you think that let me do it once next time I will download it from authorized sites. Thus you think that doing this repeatedly is unethical then doing it once is also unethical. 4. Utilitarian Principle- This is where one takes the action that achieves the higher or greater value. This of course assumes that values can be put in rank order and understand the consequences of various courses of action. Pretty far away from the Golden Rule, Hugh? EXAMPLE: in critical situation rather categorizing action in ethical or unethical you should categories or rank them into more unethical to less unethical. For example keeping track of every email of every citizen might harm privacy of people so it is unethical but it is useful to avoid any terrorist activity so tracking email of every citizen of country is less unethical 5. Risk Aversion Principle- The principle that one take the action that creates the least harm or incurs the least cost. This assumes that all actions have some harm, and our job is to take the action with the least amount of harm. EXAMPLE: hacking is considered as unethical practice but in war-situation through hacking if you can get access to warehouse of firearm manufacturing company then it is useful to save your country by using that firearms thus in this case we are selecting an action which harm a firearm manufacturing company but saving whole country. 6. No Free Lunch Rule- This states that there is no such thing as a free lunch. If something someone else has created is useful to you, it has value and you should assume the creator wants compensation for this work. EXAMPLE: In India lots of people are using pirated windows 8 operating system thus they are not paying any compensation to Microsoft so this action is unethical.

Factors for Motivation at Work in Nursing

Factors for Motivation at Work in Nursing Is motivation at work for nurses in two NHS hospitals dependant on job satisfaction or financial incentives? The National Health Service was described in a BBC News article in 2000 (BBC, 2000) as an organization in crisis as it analyzed various factors impacting the agency. The report indicated the new government mandate titled, â€Å"The NHS Plan: A Plan for Investment: A Plan for Reform† (NHS, 2000) consisting of billions committed to improving the services across a wide breathe of areas which included the following concerns as brought forth via consultation with NHS staff members and the public (NHS, 2000). The consultation consisted of interviews and surveys with 58,000 staff members and 152,000 members of the public, with the following ten areas the top concerns the public and staff members voiced: Table 1 – Top Ten Concerns Voiced by the Public and NHS Staff Members (NHS, 2000): Public Staff Members 1 More staff members with higher pay scales, the foregoing includes increased doctors, nurses, scientists and therapists, More staff, with the top concern mentioned as increases in this area and higher pay, 2 a reduction in waiting times for appointments as well as on trolleys and casualty, additional training along with an improvement in management shills across all staffing levels, 3 an improvement in the ways or working with â€Å"bring back the matron† (NHS, 2000) mentioned as one aspect of the foregoing an increase in what was termed as ‘jointed-up’ working with social services at the community as well as primary care levels, 4 focusing care that is centered on the patients with action to be taken on operations that have been canceled as well as providing more convenient services, reduced bureaucracy, consisting of less administration along with an improvement in funding systems, 5 a higher quality of care provided with cancer and heart disease mentioned prominently, more action and information on prevention to reduce the causes of ill health, 6 better medical facilities consisting of cleaner locations with a better quality of food and attention to getting the basics correct, improved working conditions along with increased aids for recruitment as well as staff retention, and more flexibility in working patterns, 7 an improvement in facilities for NHS staff, with rewards and recognition for the work done by staff members, a reduction in waiting times, 8 an improvement in location services along with improvements in local hospitals as well as surgical facilities, patient centered care, with staff frustration concerning the system being too focused on itself and its needs without meeting individual patient needs 9 an end to the postcode lottery and the assurance of higher quality in all locales, Increased performance as well as accountability systems to reduce variances in care in different locales 10 increased prevention along with better assistance on information and help on healthy living An increase in autonomy for local services to provide them with more control over their organization and a reduction in control from Whitehall The preceding indicates the similarity of views and concerns between the public and NHS staff in 2000 at the inception of the government’s â€Å"The NHS Plan: A Plan for Investment: A Plan for Reform† (NHS, 2000). In June of 2004 the Department of Health reported on the â€Å"NHS Improvement Plan† (Department of Health, 2004) which detailed the progress made in the NHS since the year 2000. The ‘Forward’ to this document by Prime Minister Tony Blair summarized the achievements and status of the NHS and the following calls attention to those areas as indicated in Table 1 Top Ten Concerns Voiced by the Public and NHS Staff Members: Under the ‘Plan’ thousands of additional doctors and nurses, representing a 22% rise in doctors, 21% increase in nurses and a 27% rise in scientific staff, new incentives for staff and pay contracts have been implemented, incentives have been created to reward staff for service commitments and improvements, dozens of new hospital facilities have been opened under the ‘Plan’, there has been a reduction in waiting times, from 18 months to under nine months, outpatient appointments have been reduced from 26 weeks to 17 weeks, cancer and heart disease death rates have been reduced, new services such as NHS Direct and Walk-in Centres have been implemented, patient care has been improved with faster diagnosis and treatment times clinical governance has aided in aiding in evaluation and overall service improvement as implemented under â€Å"The NHS Plan: A Plan for Investment: A Plan for Reform† (NHS, 2000) The preceding represent a summary of the status report on the improvements in the NHS since the adoption of â€Å"The NHS Plan: A Plan for Investment: A Plan for Reform† (NHS, 2000). The foregoing information is endemic to the examination of whether motivation at work for nurses is dependent upon job satisfaction or financial incentives as the NHS is a countrywide operation and the overall system impacts upon each hospital and staff member even in the best of situations. Thus, the overall climate and atmosphere of the NHS is an important factor in understanding the context of this examination. The underlying facts are that in terms of health care expenditures and other areas the United Kingdom spends just $1,813 per resident as compared to $2,387 for France, $2,780 for Germany, $2,580 for Canada and $4,500 for the United States (OECD, 2003). And the foregoing is further exacerbated by the fact that the United Kingdom has just 2 physicians for each 1,000 in population as compar ed against 2.8 in the United States and 3.3 in Germany and France (Stevens, 2004, pp. 37-44). And while the shortfall of physicians represents a major NHS problem, it is the nurses who see to the multitude of tasks and daily patient care which makes the hospitals run and the shortage of these professionals is a critical component in better health care. A BBC News article in 1999 pointed out that some of the reasons for the shortage of nurses in the NHS are due to poor pay as well as conditions that have affected retention as well as recruitment (BBC News, 1999). The sub-standard pay scale was illustrated through a survey that found that one fifth of all health workers had taken on a second job to enable them to meet expenses, and that one third worked an average of two weeks per year without pay as a result of extra overtime work (BBC News, 1999). The article (BBC News, 1999) added that pay was not the only factor in the nursing shortage problem, the nurses mentioned conditions and a lack of job satisfaction due to the long working hours, heavy pressure, under staffing and lack of recognition. This document shall examine the crisis confronting the NHS with respect to nurses from the standpoint of whether the motivational factor for these professionals is dependant upon job satisfaction or financial incentives. This examination shal l utilize secondary survey sources as well as a primary survey to equate these aspects along with theoretical research and opinions. Chapter 2 – Literature Review In examining the question of whether motivation for nurses in the NHS is dependant upon job satisfaction or financial incentives, an understanding of various motivational theories is critical to this review. A central subject in the study of psychology, motivation was equated by Sigmund Freud who thought that a good part of the behavior of human beings was based upon unconscious motives and or irrational instinctive urges (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2006). Behavioral psychologists, however, stress that the importance of external goals plays a huge role in prompting action, and humanistic psychologists believe that it lies in felt needs (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2006). A major study conducted by the Kings Fund (2002) pointed out that the government’s commitment to add an additional  £9.4 billion in funding to improve NHS services to bring the agency into closer proximity with the spending of other European countries, as well as the additional of more nurses, therapists and cons ultants in and of itself was not enough. The Report stressed that the problems of staff retention and recruitment have their roots in good morale and motivation, and that the foregoing is an essential component in order to have a healthy workforce as well as to aid in the attraction as well as retention of nurses (Kings Fund, 2002). The Report went on to state that the NHS needs to have a better understanding of both the positive and negative factors acting upon motivation and morale, as these aspects need to be addressed as part of improving the overall state of service delivery in the NHS (Kings Fund, 2002). The preceding implication has been borne out in an article by Margaret Callaghan (2003, pp. 82-89) who conducted a study on morale amongst fifty-eight nurses, 30 were females and 28 were male) regarding morale and career concerns. The study found that morale was extremely low among the respondents with a large number of the group surveyed seriously thinking of leaving the profession. More importantly, the feelings among the surveyed group were so strong regarding the negative aspects of nursing in the NHS that they indicated that the majority of those surveyed indicated they would discourage others from entering the profession, citing disillusionment, limited advancement opportunities, job insecurity, limited resources and the lack of support for furthered education, which equate to motivational issues, as well as low pay (Callaghan, 2003, pp. 82-89). Interestingly, the findings of the study indicated that recent increases in the pay scale had helped to improve staff morale however; this development only partly offset other factors (Callaghan, 2003, pp. 82-89). Additional information on the importance of nursing morale, motivational factors and job satisfaction are addressed in Chapter 2.1 the Broader Survey, which includes a number of surveys’s and studies. 2.1 The Broader Survey The annual RCN membership survey conducted in 2003 (Ball et al, 2003) found that the overall nursing population is getting older, with the media age increasing to 41 from 39 just five years ago. The respondent field consisted of a mailing of 15,917 RCN members with a 61% response rate, or 9,700 returned forms, thus the survey covered a broad number of members and it can be concluded that the sampling is an accurate cross section representing meaningful numbers that precludes bias. The significance of the foregoing with respect to the theme of this study is that the drop out rate for nursing students now stands at between 15% to 20%, with one out of ten of those surveyed indicating that they would not elect to work for the NHS (Ball et al, 2003). The findings indicated that the work hour demands placed on NHS nurses represents a real factor in dissatisfaction with their jobs in that 64% work full time averaging 44 hours per week as opposed to just 20% for GP nurses (Ball et al, 2003). The significance of the foregoing in the context of this examination is that nurses indicated that they want greater choice and control over their working hours and cited this as a major factor in moving into agency and bank work where they work for a lower rate of pay, and usually the same hours and the same settings as NHS nurses. This represents an interesting correlation in that nurses elect these options even though they complain about the lower rates of pay for the same work and grades, however, they are more positive about their experience in bank and agency work than their NHS counterparts (Ball et al, 2003). The foregoing is borne out by the fact that nurses in NHS hospitals are less satisfied with their choices over shift lengths, as noted by 40%, as compared to 26% of GP practice nurses and 22% of agency and bank nurses, thus representing a key job satisfaction issue. The preceding is further evidenced by NHS nurses working in excess of their 37.5 contracted hours, averagi ng 44 hours per week. 2.2 The Critical Review The RCN study uncovered that career prospects and the opportunity to progress are limited as three-fifths indicated that it was difficult to advance from their present grade, with E grade nurses as the most pessimistic (Ball et al, 2003). The lack of definitive job advancement opportunities represents a hurdle to motivating NHS nurses as well as recruitment, as do the survey findings regarding the following areas (Ball et al, 2003): Table 2 – NHS Views of Workload and Staffing (Ball et al, 2003) Disagree Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly Agree Do not spend too much time on non-nursing duties 17 37 23 2 There are sufficient Staff to provide a good standard of care 21 40 23 3 I am not under too much pressure at work 19 37 16 1 My workload is not too heavy 23 39 13 1 The RCN study indicated that in terms of nurse’s issues, pay scales were not the overriding issue as factors such as workloads and hours worked played a large part in their perceptions. The study found that the respondents rated good pay as an important aspect by 75% of those surveyed, and 90% of the respondents stated that staffing was an extremely important issue and was one of the most cited areas by nurses to improve job satisfaction (Ball et al, 2003). The findings strongly indicated that as a result of dissatisfaction with working conditions that nurses were prepared to leave NHS jobs for less pay to gain control over their personal lives indicating the importance of job satisfaction as a key area. The lack of adequate opportunities for advance also rated high on the list of concerns and complaints voiced by respondents as 47% indicated that they were not graded appropriately (Ball et al, 2003). Pay scales are the outgrowth of the preceding thus naturally the attitudes t owards compensation rated high on the list of replies. Table 3 – Views Regarding Pay (Ball et al, 2003) Disagree Strongly disagree Agree Strongly agree I could not be paid more for less effort if I left nursing 35 39 10 1 Nurses are not paid poorly in relation to other professional groups 54 36 3 2 Considering the work I do I am paid well 23 48 11 1 The replies in this area are consistent with the complaints regarding poor pay as voiced by NHS nurses as well as uncovered in numerous surveys and articles on this area, and nine of ten nurses feel that they are poorly paid in comparison with other professions (Ball et al, 2003). The importance of adequate pay was indicated by 75% of respondents, with 80% stating that receiving promotions based upon merit as equally important which represents a job satisfaction issue. Equating the factors representing motivation, job satisfaction and financial incentives in the nursing profession is an exceedingly complex task owing to the highly skilled nature of the work as well as the differing positions, grading and assignment variables involved. A significant measure of job satisfaction is the movement of staff in and out of the NHS. The study found that 25% of NHS nurses had changed jobs in the calendar year compared against 15% in the GP practice sector, and 17% involved in nursing and nurse education. Table 4 – NHS Nurse Turnover 1996 – 2002 (Ball et al, 2003) Year Percent 1996 23% 1997 21% 1998 18% 1999 19% 2000 20% 2001 23% 2002 24% 2003 25% It is important to note that in equating the preceding figures that a change of job does not always mean that one has left their current employer, as it could also mean a promotion, transfer or lateral move within the same organization. The survey revealed that 51% of the indicated changes in job represented a change in employer and that 13% of all nurses engaged in this practice during 2003 (Ball et al, 2003). The sheer overall size of the NHS means that most employment changes entailed jobs within the NHS system, with 96.5% of the nurses changing jobs who were in the NHS remaining in the NHS even though they switched or changed jobs (Ball et al, 2003), and these job changes can also entail the NHS bank. An important determinant of job satisfaction and motivation is what nurses plan to do in the future with regard to their employment. 29% of the surveyed nurses indicated their intention to leave their employer in the next two years, with NHS nurses indicated this intention at 27% (B all et al, 2003). Those nurses who indicated that they intend to stay at the present employment cited that they felt that their work was valued as the primary reason, 63% (Ball et al, 2003). Nurse’s views regarding motivation along with job satisfaction can be also equated via morale which describes their views as well as attitudes. The survey uncovered that 73% of respondents indicated that they did not desire to leave nursing as a profession, and of the 27% who expressed a desire to leave only 22% indicated that they would recommend nursing to others as a career (Ball et al, 2003). 74% indicated that the career prospects in the profession have increasingly become less attractive and a higher percentage would opt to leave the profession altogether if they could think of a suitable alternative after the years they invested in the career (Ball et al, 2003). Table 5 – Respondents Indicating They Would Leave Nursing If They Could (Ball et al, 2003) Strongly agree Agree Neither Disagree Strongly disagree Work is valued score 3.5 3.05 2.75 2.4 2.1 Table 6 – Respondents Indicating They Want to Leave Nursing Percentages (Ball et al, 2003) 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55 and over Would leave 14.7 23 31 32.5 27 33 30 26 Planning to leave 5 9 10.5 9 7 7 11 34 The survey uncovered that the respondents who indicated a desire to leave the profession if they could was correlated strongly with their perception of a lack of advancement and or promotion opportunities. And those who feel that their work is valued indicated that they would either stay or did not indicate an intention or consideration of leaving. The preceding seemingly points to job satisfaction as the more important factor among nurses, feeling appreciated and valued, rather than low pay, which is cited often as a problem as well as advancement opportunities. Morale as well as being or feeling rewarded thus tends to fall closely with feeling valued and or appreciated as a reason for motivating nurses. In terms of correlating the information and findings uncovered as a result of the RCN membership survey conducted in 2003 (Ball et al, 2003) the Kings Fund survey of ‘Morale and Motivation’ in the NHS represents a interesting manner in which to compare results to determine whether motivation for nurses is dependent on job satisfaction or financial incentives. The Kings Fund survey indicated that while it is difficult to measure the way in which individuals feel regarding their work, the survey indications pointed to morale as well as motivation in the NHS as being low. The Kings Fund survey identified three distinct factors that affect both moral and motivation (Kings Fund, 2002): whether of not the staff feel they are valued, the working environment, and resources and pay scales These same three aspects were correlations reached in the RCN membership survey conducted in 2003 (Ball et al, 2003) and thus provides a strong case for the fact that job satisfaction seemingly represents the key motivational factor for nurses in the NHS. The Kings Fund summary indicated that nurses as well as doctors have elected to leave their positions in the NHS as well as to retire early in large numbers (Ball et al, 2003). The preceding has been found to be in huge part that NHS staff members feeling that they are not valued by the government as well as the media, which has been critical of their performance and quality of service, which reflects in shaping public perceptions to a great degree. The Kings Fund (2002) survey points to the example of hospitals in the United States that have been successful in the attraction and retention of nurses which studies have attributed to their including staff in decision making aspects to increase their perception of value and worth as we ll as involvement and control. The Kings Fund study indicated that the major factors that affect morale as well as motivation are as follows (Kings Fund, 2002): Working Environment The study found that the quality of the working environment which respect primarily to the staffing levels, speed of reform and the depth of same are major factors affecting morale as well as motivation. It indicated that too much change as well as too much political control represent de-motivating factors and represent key reasons that individuals indicate as desiring to leave employ in the NHS. Feeling Valued The RCN membership survey (Ball et al, 2003) strongly indicated the importance of ‘feeling valued’ in the workplace representing an extremely strong factor in job satisfaction. The Kings Fund study stated that the value which nurses as well as other staff members perceived as a result of groups outside of the NHS such as politicians, the public as well as the media were highly important in this equation. The Kings Fund study indicated that like the American hospitals, those NHS facilities that involve nurses in decision making, planning and policy have a happier and higher motivated workforce with lower turnover rates. The Kings Fund study also included focus group discussions out of which ‘feeling valued’ emerged as the key determinant defining morale and motivation. The critical issues identified from these sessions where as follows: Perceived Worth The study uncovered that the general consensus among those in the focus group was that they did not feel valued as professionals by members of their own profession who had higher educational achievements or degrees, as well as the public. Levels of Support Staff members indicated that they feel that they are not supported by politicians as well as employers, citing that the public perception of the NHS had changed after the government blamed NHS staff for service quality. Importantly, those focus group members who reported and or felt they were listened to felt motivated. Recognition and Treatment The status of treatment, in terms of recognition and support was indicated as an important consideration by members of the focus group study with regard to their feelings concerning their job and satisfaction with it. Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction is a category that is in lock step with morale and motivation, according to the Kings Fund study, and represents reasons linked with the intention to leave or as to why they have left employment. The foregoing includes factors such as the nature of the work, if there are advancement opportunities and other factors linked to job satisfaction. Resources and Pay In this context, resources referred to how well the service segment of the hospital facility is resourced overall as well as the manner in which staff members are rewarded. The foregoing highly influences morale as well as motivation as reported by medical managers and doctors. While some of the preceding areas seemingly do not correlate as being endemic to the examination of motivation and whether job satisfaction or financial incentives are the key to involvement for nurses, it was deemed important to draw a larger picture of the context to thus magnify the areas of importance within this context. The foregoing approach enables the research findings to draw upon additional information from which to support the rationales as well as aid in the formulation of the conclusion that the data suggests and points to. The foregoing also aids in the analysis of the primary research survey which represented a sampling of just 22 individuals. Chapter 3 Methodology The methodology utilized in equating the examination as to whether motivation at work for nurses in the NHS is dependent upon job satisfaction or financial incentives was conducted utilizing primary research in the form of a small survey as well as secondary research surveys as conducted by the RCN, the Kings Fund, Margaret Callaghan (2003, pp. 82-89), and ‘The NHS Plan: A Plan for Investment: A Plan for Reform’ along with varied theories on job satisfaction and motivational factors. The utilization of five differing survey and studies on the subject were conducted to ensure that the conclusions drawn from this information was based upon having enough information from which to read into the examination. The secondary surveys and studies were both comprehensive as well as large and the topic field, while not specifically devoted to the examination as posed herein, did contain enough data, questions, elements and points to enable their use as viable information sources. Gr aph data was converted to tables herein to present the data in a more comprehensive and readable format. The utilization of various articles and news sources aided in identifying the past as well as the current temper of conditions, moods and attitudes in the NHS from the perspective of nurses as well as governmental actions and public opinions. The preceding enabled the establishment of an historical perspective, and the legislative actions undertaken by the United Kingdom government in the form of the â€Å"The NHS Plan: A Plan for Investment: A Plan for Reform† (NHS, 2000) and the â€Å"NHS Improvement Plan† (Department of Health, 2004). The consensus of the overall effect of these plans is that the government has indeed made some progress in the hiring of additional nurses, doctors and technicians as well as introducing pay scale incentives, however, as stated by the BBC (2003) the NHS is still threatened with a shortfall of 50,000 nurses who are due to retire over the next five years despite the hiring of 40,000 extra nurses since 1997. The historical research utilize d as part of the methodology provided background information on the internal problems of the NHS which includes the fact that a large proportion of the 40,000 hired NHS nurses were obtained through foreign recruiting and that the pay incentive measures only reached 15,000 nurses in terms of the 12% pay raise (BBC News, 2003). Wheatcroft (2006) summarized the preceding in stating that all of the additional funds that have been provided to the N

PI :: essays research papers

π is the mysterious number that most people think is merely 3.14. π is the ratio of a circle’s circumference to its diameter. π has been calculated to 206,158,430,000 digits, which was accomplished by Yasumasa Kanada and Daisuke Takahashi from the University of Tokyo in September of 1999. On the other hand, there were the Babylonians and Hebrews who lived and died, believing that π was simply 3. Evidence from the Rhind papyrus shows that the Egyptians knew 3.16, but implied in their Great Pyramid is the even better value 3.14. Much like the Babylonians, the early Hindus and Chinese accepted 3. Archimedes led the Greeks to believe that the limits of π were 3.141< π

Education in Pakistan Essay

Education in Pakistan is overseen by the government’s Ministry of Education and the provincial governments, whereas the federal government mostly assists in curriculum development, accreditation and in the financing of research. The article 25-A of Constitution of Pakistan obligates the state to provide free and compulsory quality education to children of the age group 5 to 16 years. â€Å"The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of five to sixteen years in such a manner as may be determined by law†. [3] The education system in Pakistan is generally divided into five levels: primary (grades one through five); middle (grades six through eight); high(grades nine and ten, leading to the Secondary School Certificate or SSC); intermediate (grades eleven and twelve, leading to a Higher Secondary (School) Certificate or HSC); and university programs leading to undergraduate and graduate degrees. [4] The literacy rate ranges from 87% in Islamabad to 20% in the Kohlu District. [5] Between 2000—2004, Pakistanis in the age group 55–64 had a literacy rate of almost 30%, those aged between 45–54 had a literacy rate of nearly 40%, those between 25–34 had a literacy rate of 50%, and those aged 15–24 had a literacy rate of 60%. [6] Literacy rates vary regionally, particularly by sex. In tribal areas female literacy is 7. 5%. [7]Moreover, English is fast spreading in Pakistan, with 18 million Pakistanis[8] (11% of the population)[8] having a command over the English language, which makes it the 9th Largest English Speaking Nation[9] in the world and the 3rd largest in Asia. [8] On top of that, Pakistan produces about 445,000 university graduates and 10,000 computer science graduates per year. [10] Despite these statistics, Pakistan still has one of the highest illiteracy rates in the world. [11] Education Expenditure as Percentage of GDP Public expenditure on education lies on the fringes of 2 percent of GDP. However, the government recently approved the new national education policy, which stipulates that education expenditure will be increased to 7% of GDP,[22] an idea that was first suggested by the Punjab government. [23] Author of an article, which reviews the history of education spending in Pakistan since 1972, argues that this policy target raises a fundamental question: What extraordinary things are going to happen that would enable Pakistan to achieve within six years what it has been unable to lay a hand on in the past six decades? The policy document is blank on this question and does not discuss the assumptions that form the basis of this target. Calculations of the author show that during the past 37 years, the highest public expenditure on education was 2. 80 percent of GDP in 1987-88. Public expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP was actually reduced in 16 years and maintained in 5 years between 1972–73 and 2008-09. Thus, out of total 37 years since 1972, public expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP either decreased or remained stagnant for 21 years. The author argues if linear trend were maintained since 1972, Pakistan could have touched 4 percent of GDP well before 2015. However, it is unlikely to happen because the levels of spending have had remained significantly unpredictable and unsteady in the past. Given this disappointing trajectory, increasing public expenditure on education to 7 percent of GDP would be nothing less than a miracle but it is not going to be of godly nature. Instead, it is going to be the one of political nature because it has to be â€Å"invented† by those who are at the helm of affairs. The author suggests that little success can be made unless Pakistan adopts an â€Å"unconventional† approach to education. That is to say, education sector should be treated as a special sector by immunizing budgetary allocations for it from fiscal stresses and political and economic instabilities. Allocations for education should not be affected by squeezed fiscal space or surge in military expenditure or debts. At the same time, there is a need to debate others options about how Pakistan can â€Å"invent† the miracle of raising education expenditure to 7 percent of GDP by 2015. [24]

Free Essays on Rutherford B Hayes

Rutherford B. Hayes was considered by many to be a simple, uncontroversial, and honest man to run for the presidency. That is why many people are perplexed that such an astute person should have one of the most controversial elections and presidencies ever. Considering Hayes’ honorable principles, it came as a surprise to see how he could unknowingly make a decision about reconstruction where its effects were so blatantly derogatory to the cause he was trying to help. The controversy began when he was merely running for office. Hayes was running against Democrat Samuel J. Tilden. When the ballots were tallied in 1876, Hayes clearly lost the popular vote, and had lost the electoral vote 184 to 165 . However, twenty votes in Oregon, South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana were disputed due to the protest that blacks were not given the equal chance to go to the polls and vote. Congress created and electoral commission, which carefully decided that Hayes would receive all twenty votes. Facing the possibility that the country would be left without a president, both parties were considering taking the office by force. In spite of all the conflict, a deal was finally struck. Republicans made a secret deal with Democrats in congress, who agreed not to dispute the Hayes victory in exchange for a promise to withdraw federal troops from the south and end reconstruction . Hayes made good on the deal. He swiftly ended Reconstruction and pulled federal troops ou t of the last two occupied states, South Carolina and Louisiana . During the brief period of radical reconstruction the negro enjoyed both civil and political rights. This political bargain contained three generally recognized parts: 1) The north would keep hands off the ‘negro problem’. 2) The rules governing race relations in the South would be written by whites. 3) These rules would concede the negro limited civil rights, but neither social nor political equality (page 787) . It is ... Free Essays on Rutherford B Hayes Free Essays on Rutherford B Hayes Rutherford B. Hayes was considered by many to be a simple, uncontroversial, and honest man to run for the presidency. That is why many people are perplexed that such an astute person should have one of the most controversial elections and presidencies ever. Considering Hayes’ honorable principles, it came as a surprise to see how he could unknowingly make a decision about reconstruction where its effects were so blatantly derogatory to the cause he was trying to help. The controversy began when he was merely running for office. Hayes was running against Democrat Samuel J. Tilden. When the ballots were tallied in 1876, Hayes clearly lost the popular vote, and had lost the electoral vote 184 to 165 . However, twenty votes in Oregon, South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana were disputed due to the protest that blacks were not given the equal chance to go to the polls and vote. Congress created and electoral commission, which carefully decided that Hayes would receive all twenty votes. Facing the possibility that the country would be left without a president, both parties were considering taking the office by force. In spite of all the conflict, a deal was finally struck. Republicans made a secret deal with Democrats in congress, who agreed not to dispute the Hayes victory in exchange for a promise to withdraw federal troops from the south and end reconstruction . Hayes made good on the deal. He swiftly ended Reconstruction and pulled federal troops ou t of the last two occupied states, South Carolina and Louisiana . During the brief period of radical reconstruction the negro enjoyed both civil and political rights. This political bargain contained three generally recognized parts: 1) The north would keep hands off the ‘negro problem’. 2) The rules governing race relations in the South would be written by whites. 3) These rules would concede the negro limited civil rights, but neither social nor political equality (page 787) . It is ...